On this day in 1776, the Continental Congress published the Declaration of Independence. This sacred document was drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, with influence from George Mason’s Declaration of Rights. As Jefferson remembered in a letter to Henry Lee in 1825, he set out to draft a “common sense” treatise in “terms so plain and firm, as to command [the] assent” of mankind.[1]
The final draft of the Declaration of Independence did not necessarily please Jefferson, as Congress made several changes, including the removal of a passage on the slave trade.
he has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life & liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. this piratical warfare, the opprobrium ofinfidelpowers, is the warfare of the CHRISTIAN king of Great Britain. determined to keep open a market where MEN should be bought & sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this execrable commerce: and that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished die, he is now exciting those very people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has deprived them, & murdering the people upon whom he also obtruded them; thus paying off former crimes committed against theliberties of one people, with crimes which he urges them to commit against thelivesof another.[2]
Ultimately, the final document was published and disseminated nationwide for public viewing.
Ironically, the Continental Congress adopted the resolution on July 2, 1776. John Adams infamously wrote to his wife, Abigail,
“I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding Generations as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance, by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. You will think me transported with Enthusiasm but I am not. — I am well aware of the Toil and Blood and Treasure, that it will cost Us to maintain this Declaration, and support and defend these States. — Yet through all the Gloom I can see the Rays of ravishing Light and Glory. I can see that the End is more than worth all the Means. And that Posterity will tryumph in that Days Transaction, even altho We should rue it, which I trust in God We shall not.”[3]
As the nation gathers today to celebrate with family, friends, food, and fireworks, may we not forget the bravery of the colonists in standing up against what they saw as injustices forced upon them by both Parliament and King George III.
Happy Birthday, America!!
[1] Thomas Jefferson to Henry Lee, May 8, 1825.Transcription available at Founders Online.
[2] Thomas Jefferson’s “original Rough draught” of the Declaration of Independence before it was revised by the other members of the Committee of Five and by Congress. From: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Vol. 1, 1760-1776. Ed. Julian P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, pp 243-247. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/ruffdrft.html.
[3] John Adams, Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776, “Had a Declaration…”. 3 pages. Original manuscript from the Adams Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.
As a little girl, I loved nothing more than curling up on the couch with a pillow and a blanket and watching David O. Selznick’s vision of Gone with the Wind starring the incomparable Clark Gable (my first crush) and Vivian Leigh.[1] The moment I first saw the dresses, I was hooked. That film started my love of fashion from the Antebellum period and, if I am honest, even some of the colonial and medieval periods. I used to dream about what it might be like to be Scarlett O’Hara with all those gorgeous clothes or to be a courtesan in the court of Henry VIII with the exquisite dresses of the period. I did not stop to think about the lack of modern conveniences such as air conditioning, electricity, running water, or even a toilet that flushed. I knew I would fit in perfectly and be the “belle of the ball.” It might sound odd coming from a pre-modern era military historian now that I think about it since I do not even remotely study the fashion of the past. In fact, I wouldn’t say I like having to do cultural histories that focus on the first thing that made me fall in love with history.
However, those musings of that young girl were in some ways put to the test over the last two weeks. Hurricane Helene ravished my tiny hometown of Douglas, GA. I went two weeks without electricity, running water, or even the ability to flush a toilet without using a bucket of water. Thankfully, some fantastic linemen from Northern Mississippi relieved me of this new “lifestyle” yesterday when they replaced two down electrical poles and lines and brought a few of us on our road back into the modern era. So, what did I learn from all this? Well, it’s pretty simple: I cannot do without certain aspects of our contemporary life.
First—electricity. I do not know how past generations survived the heat of South Georgia (thank goodness it was not the middle of summer when 100 degrees felt like 115) without air conditioning. To be transparent, I had a small portable AC unit hooked to a generator (that was an experience trying to put gas at 9 pm in the pitch-black darkness with just a flashlight; I got so eaten up by mosquitos) that provided some air in my bedroom. However, that did not produce the kind of cooling I am accustomed to at all. In addition to the air conditioning and lights that run off electricity, we live in the country, so we have a well. Well, you need electricity to make the well run. I have a new appreciation of not having to grab a bucket of water from a stream or pond or even manually pump a well to have water in the house.
No electricity means no hot water to wash dishes or take a shower. I do not know how Caroline Ingalls, with three girls and a farmer for a husband, did to wash clothes, do dishes, and provide baths. Still, I can tell you it would have been the hard way of heating it on a wood-burning stove or over a fire, which means she couldn’t control the temperature of the water quickly. If I had to resort to that type of heating for water, I would be up a creek without a paddle. Having to resort to an outhouse might have also made me think twice. Thankfully, today, we know to fill a bathtub with water before the storm hits so we can still use our indoor toilets. Knowing this also gives me a new appreciation for my late great-grandma, who lived that way until she no longer could.
Secondly, entertainment! Today’s generation (and yes, even mine) has everything they need in the palm of their hand regarding entertainment. All smartphones can do everything from movies to books to music. Lose electricity and the internet- what’s a person to do? When you are without electricity to produce light, once it gets dark, it’s pitch black, especially out in the country. No light means you cannot even read a physical book (yes, they still exist; ask my husband about my “library” in my house). Before electricity, you might have an oil lamp to read by, but oil would not have been affordable enough to waste reading books at night because you were bored. Instead, most went to bed when the sun went down. That might mean you were in bed at 6 pm, depending on the time of year. I nearly went stir-crazy sitting around the house for just two days before cell service was restored enough to browse Facebook and TikTok at least.
Lastly, the dresses! Those dresses I dreamed of for so long as a little girl; there is no way I could even think about wearing those in the heat of South Georgia! They might be beautiful and fashionable, but think about all those layers when all you want to do is strip them off. No, thank you! Katie Scarlett O’Hara can keep her dresses if it means I can keep my jeans and shorts! I will probably always love and admire those dresses. Still, after two weeks of living without electricity or running water, I have firmly determined that I was born in the right century.
In the twenty-seven hours since the linemen from a company called TIPPAH restored my power, I have washed, dried, folded, and put away three loads of laundry with more in the washer. I have redone dishes I washed in cold, soapy water, graded papers (albeit with a hotpot on my phone since the internet has not been restored), created lectures and PowerPoints, set up a new online class for my US History II course that I will be teaching in B term, and enjoyed the hottest shower I could stand without feeling like I needed to rush. I will always return to Gone with the Wind and my first crush, Clark Gable, but I will never again wish to live in that era. It is “a bygone era, one that is gone with the wind.”[2]
[1] 1. David O. Selznick, Gone with the Wind, film (USA: Selznick International Pictures, 1939).
As of March 2024, I successfully defended my dissertation on the Lieber Code and Prisoners of War! I am now employed full-time at South Georgia State College, teaching history while trying to prepare my dissertation for publication. Over the next few weeks, I plan to write more about my experience as a PhD student, the process of defending my dissertation, and what I ultimately learned. It may take me a few weeks, but a new blog post is coming soon!!
“So it is to the United States of North America and to President Lincoln that belongs the honor of having taken the initiative in defining with precision the customs and laws of war. This first official attempt to codify the customs of war and to collect in a code the rule binding upon military forces has notably contributed to impress the character of humanity upon the conduct of the northern states in the course of that war.”
F. de Martens, “Précis du Droit des Gens moderne de l’Euorpe,” 1879
Letter from Partillia E. Bell to Abraham Lincoln, Thursday, February 18, 1864 seeking her husband’s release from Alton Prison. Image from the Library of Congress.
Imagine it is June 1862; the war rages all around. Soldiers fall in battle; some severely wounded, and the enemy takes others as prisoners. Now fast forward to a couple of days later, those soldiers traveled either on foot or by train to where they will spend their time as prisoners of war. They walk up to the gates. They walk in; this is their hell on earth. Depending on if the soldiers are Union or Confederate will determine their prison. Salisbury Prison in North Carolina is likely the place a Union soldier would end up. Alton prison in Illinois might be the temporary home of Confederate soldiers. Both prisons could safely hold between 1750 to 2500 prisoners. However, by the time both closed, they far exceeded their capacity. Conditions varied at both camps, with Salisbury prison initially having more favorable conditions. Alton, on the other hand, was quite different. The extreme weather conditions from hot summers to frigid winters led to 300 men dying from smallpox in the winter of 1862 and the spring of 1863.
Salisbury Prison, 1864 Photo from the Library of Congress
As the war progressed, there were more than 150 prison camps across the North and South. Prisoner exchanges had stopped, the camps became overcrowded, and diseases ran rampant throughout them. Food supplies were in shortage, especially in the South, where the blockade prevented the transportation of needed supplies. Camps in the North and South lacked adequate shelter, with some, such as Andersonville, failing to provide it. Fresh water and sanitation continued to be problematic in some areas. Of the roughly 400,000 men held as prisoners of war, approximately 56,000 died in captivity.
When the Civil War started in April 1861, there were no specific rules or regulations on dealing with prisoners of war. The Articles of 1806, under which the Union army operated, did not contain any specific language or guidelines on the definitions, treatment, or conditions determining who qualified as prisoners. Nor did it address the treatment they were to receive or the provision of clothing, shelter, food, or medical care.
Out of pressure on President Abraham Lincoln to have an official stance on exchanging prisoners, Union Major General John A. Dix and Confederate Major General Daniel Harvey Hill met to create an unofficial agreement. Signed on July 22, 1862, the Dix-Hill Cartel provided for an even exchange of prisoners based on rank. Though it was well-intentioned, inconsistencies plagued it from the start and ended soon after.
Francis Lieber Photo from the Brady-Handy Collection at the Library of Congress
The need for a comprehensive set of rules and laws for war became evident. Nevertheless, who was qualified to create such rules? The army needed someone who understood the concept of a total and just war. Someone who understood not only traditional rules but one who could modernize the rules as war changed. Enter Dr. Francis Lieber. Lieber experienced war as a young man, having fought at Waterloo and Ligny against Napoleon in 1817. He and General Halleck had corresponded for years about the rules and laws of war. So when the need arose to have definitive answers on handling issues such as guerilla warfare, spies, parole, and prisoners of war, Halleck turned to Lieber and appointed him to a special board comprised of Lieber and four army officers. Lieber completed his project within a couple of months. Lincoln approved it and issued it on April 24, 1863, to the Union Army as General Orders No. 100.
Front page of Lieber’s A Code for the Government of Armies in the Field as Authorized by the Laws and Usages of War on Land.
Many historians and military leaders look to Lieber’s Code as a law of military necessity, yet Section III holds the most critical aspect of this code. Within this section lies the definition of a prisoner of war, and it details essential facts such as how to treat them, concerns with medical care, and basic provisions such as food, clothing, and shelter. It addressed the means of exchanging prisoners and, most notably, was retaliation an acceptable punishment. It was the first time in modern United States history that the Articles of War now had provisions for the appropriate treatment of prisoners of war.
Nevertheless, some questions have not received enough attention. Would the Confederacy respond to the revisions of the Articles of War? Would they recognize and utilize the new laws in their treatment of prisoners? It is widely recognized that the Confederate prison camps, such as Andersonville, did not operate under the Lieber Code, yet was there a possibility of the Confederacy ever doing so? What motivation could Lieber have in creating the newly revised rules? What role, if any, does morality play in war? In addition to these questions, a further question remains, what was the legacy of Lieber’s Code? What impact would it have not only on the way the United States military-operated, but would international military law find common ground with it? Indeed, many international military laws regarding prisoners of war claimed as their foundational document that inspired their final product as Dr. Francis Lieber and his Code.
Colorized photo of my 3rd Great Grandfather Henry Allen Brigman. He was imprisoned at Hart’s Island in New York during the Civil War as a POW.
My research is a work in progress. I started researching prisoners of war nearly twenty years ago when I discovered family members who were prisoners of war during the Civil War. Their stories are what inspired me to learn all that I can about the rules and laws governing prison camps and the treatment of prisoners. I wanted to know why one family member never returned home, and the how and why another managed to return. Most importantly, I want to know more about the man who created these laws, to know why and how he selected the positions that ultimately became the defining laws. There is still more to be discovered about Lieber, the committee that aided him in creating the newly revised laws, the way the Union army implemented and put into practice the laws, the opinion of the Confederacy, and its legacy.
Colonial Era Graves at Mt. Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, MD
Most people think of cemeteries as a place you visit to bury a loved one, and maybe visit their grave occasionally. Historians, on the other hand, see history and not just any history but local history. When others are avoiding them, we are searching for them. The stories that are often just waiting to be told from the past are often connected to old cemeteries. For example, the photo above is Mt. Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, Maryland. Now, I am not from the area, but I was there to explore some Civil War history when I discovered that this particular place has some neat history tied into it by the graves within. I discovered that Francis Scott Key, his wife and his parents are buried here. Along the back road, there are also unknown graves of Civil War soldiers. But these are not the only people buried there, everyday common people who lived through unique times have their own unique stories to tell.
Cemeteries have more than stories of those buried there to tell us. By walking old cemeteries we can learn about architecture and design by studying the monuments and how they changed through the ages.
A grave in Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA
Take a look at this 19th century monument. Notice how intricate the details are in the lilies. Can you imagine the hours it took the artist to carve the lilies out of stone? It does not necessarily mean that because this monument is so ornate that the individual was loved more than say the photo below. It does however, mean that the style and era had changed
Table style monument at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA
In stark contrast to this beautiful memorial, stands the 18th century style known as tables. These were more prominent in England but carried over into the Southeast section of the country. They are however, not as prominent as one might think in that they are rarely found. If they are, they are typically collapsed.
My son’s grave at Salem Baptist Church Cemetery in Douglas, Ga.
Today, monuments or grave markers can be beautiful without the overly intricate designs. Note that while they are not always so intricate as in the past, they are still capable of expressing the love of a dearly departed.
Marker of Dr. James Brown, Presbyterian Cemetery, Lynchburg Virginia.
Did you know you could learn a lot about a town’s local history simply by walking and exploring old cemeteries? Well, it’s true! I am personally, not from this area so exploring old cemeteries allows me to learn something about the history of it. Take for example, the headstone to the right for Dr. James Brown. Finding this particular marker has allowed me the opportunity to do a little research on him. Born in Scotland he settled in an area of Amherst County known as “New Glasgow.” This tells me as a historian, that the area was in all probability heavily populated by Scottish immigrants. Furthermore, the research indicates that he was a physician at the University of Edinburgh before moving to the United States. He had two sons, one a lawyer, the other also a doctor and also educated at the University of Edinburgh. In another interesting connection, Dr. Brown served as a physician to the future Virginia governor, William H. Cabell who lived in 1795 at Union Hill in Amherst County.
Guggenheimer Bench at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA
Historians can also put together sketches of the community by the names they come across while walking cemeteries. For example, the image above is the Guggenheimer Bench, notice how large it is with the name prominently displayed in the top. For reference, the grave makers are across the circle from the bench. The name Guggenheimer comes from the Jewish community. Could Lynchburg have had a sizeable Jewish community or was it a small one with just a few families? This is the type of questions that historians can ask when they are exploring areas. This historian learned that the Guggenheimer family owned a large department store on Main Street here in Lynchburg during the late 19th century. The parents were originally from Germany when they migrated to the United States. Charles Max Guggenheimer was born in 1860 and just six short years later his father, Nathaniel died.
Grave of War of 1812 veteran Samuel Garland
Grave of Civil War Major General Samuel Garland Jr.
As a military historian, I personally love searching for veterans within old cemeteries. In the past when I moved to a new city it was typically because the military sent us there. Today, my husband is retired and we no longer move based on where the military sends us. Walking through old cemeteries allows me to connect with the military history the town might hold. While not every town had a military presence, many sent young men to fight in some war. It is not unusual to walk within a cemetery and find veterans that range from the American Revolution through the Iraq/Afghanistan wars.
As a Civil War specialist finding Civil War graves excites the inner researcher in me. It drives me to learn more about not just the individual (what battles he may have fought in) but the unit in which he served. Samuel Garland, Jr. started as a colonel with the 11th Virginia, which was part of Jubal Early’s brigade. When Early is wounded in the Battle of Williamsburg, Garland is promoted to brigadier general and placed in command of Early’s brigade. His first action as commander was at Seven Pines. In September 1862, during the Battle of South Mountain, Garland was situated around a place called Fox’s Gap. It is there that Garland is mortally wounded. His body is returned home to Lynchburg where it laid in state and on September 19, 1862 he is laid to rest in the Presbyterian Cemetery near his wife and son.
9/11 Memorial at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA
Old cemeteries have stories to tell, from veterans to the average citizen these stories lay buried in their plots with them. Historians can use information gathered from grave markers to kick start research whether it is local history or military history. They can learn about changes in how grave markers evolved or changed over time. Grave markers are not always the only type of monuments found in cemeteries. In many cases, there are ornate statuary in designs of angels, wishing wells and even 9/11 memorials. Old cemeteries are not meant just for ghost tours or saying goodbye to loved ones, inside each one there is something special to discover. It is up to you to get out and explore them and discover their secrets.
This past March while I was away with a group of students participating in a Civil War travel course, things got hectic. While we were busily traveling through Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama and back to Tennessee the world was hit with a pandemic. One that has changed the way the world functions, including historians!
(This post was originally started back in December)
Historians, museums and other public history locations have had to rethink how they approach history with an audience that is no longer feeling safe to travel to visit battlefields, museums or attend lectures. One aspect that historians in general both academic and public, utilized has been the “Zoom” or “Facebook Live” format. In this way, they have been able to conduct lectures, virtual tours, and just have conversations with authors about newly published books. One such Historian that appears to have made an impact and encouraged others to start utilizing Zoom or Facebook live is The Tattooed Historian. Yes, I know his real name but to make it easier for others to locate his page on Facebook it makes more sense to use his page name. For weeks, John and Dr. Peter Carmichael welcomed scholars across the broad spectrum that is Civil War history to discuss their recently published books. These books ranged in topics from Prisoners of War to the United States Colored Troops. Each new “conversation” also gave viewers the opportunity to ask questions in addition to purchasing the book being discussed at a discounted price from the publisher.
They were not alone, as the National Parks across the country jumped in on the opportunity to develop an online presence that enabled individuals to learn more about the parks, hear stories of survival from the park rangers of men who fought on some of the battlefields, hear stories of heartbreak and yes even intrigue.
This year saw so many historical sites closed down for an indefinite period that it was necessary to create online opportunities such as these. Historical sites are finally opening up, though for the foreseeable future it looks like there will be COVID restrictions in place. Many of these sites have struggled to stay afloat as they survive on donations and admission fees to some of these locations, while others are fortunate to be apart of the National Parks System. Here is hoping that families, students and scholars start getting back out to these sites and exploring history to better understand where this nation comes from while supporting a truly worthwhile cause. I know I personally will be getting out and hitting the Civil War Trails as I further explore the movements of a unit from New York. Hope to see you out there!
Published in the St. Louis Post Dispatch on October 25, 1929. Newspapers.com
To better understand the economic theories behind the Great Depression, one must first know about the Great Depression. The Great Depression was the worst economic fall in the industrial world. It initiated in the Stock Market crash of October 1929. Though it briefly bounced back in April 1930, the Great Depression lasted until 1939. There are many theories as to what contributed to the Great Depression, and this blog seeks to explore only one theory.
This blog intends to explore the idea that as the stock market crashed in October 1929, banks experienced customer panics in which customers removed their savings, causing the banks to run out of money. In addition to the bank panics, the problem was exacerbated because the United States functioned financially on the Gold standard at pre-war rates.
According to David C. Wheelock, Group Vice President and Deputy Researcher at the St. Louis Federal Reserve, banking panics result from customers losing confidence, thus causing bank runs. The runs themselves drank the bank of their reserves, which causes a loss of reserves forcing backs to contract loans. The contraction of loans then causes the money stock to fall, which results in reduced spending. Reduced spending, in turn, equates to unemployment, deflation, and lower output of production.[1]
Individuals standing outside the American Union Bank in New York in 1932. Photo curtesy of the National Archives.
Economists Ben Bernake and Milton Friedman both argue that the bank runs of 1930 that followed the crash of 1929 are what made the Great Depression. They believe that the Federal Reserve could have stepped in to offset the fall.[2] However, they differ on what caused or contributed to the collapse of the economic system. Friedman contends that the money stock changes resulted in the contraction of income.[3] While Bernake agrees with Friedman, he does take a different approach explaining why bank runs caused prolonged depression.
Bernake contends that there are two primary issues in the financial collapse. The first was a loss of confidence in financial institutions such as commercial banks, and the second widespread debtors’ insolvency.[4] Bernake argues that the closure of over nine thousand banks during the bank runs contributed significantly to the overall interruption of credit flow, contributing to output contraction.[5]
Editorial Cartoon by John Mccutcheon, published in the Chicago Tribune in 1931. Mccutcheon won a Pulitzer Prize for this editorial cartoon.
So what does this mean in laymen’s terms? It means that when the stock market crashed in 1929, people around the country got nervous and started pulling their money out of the banks. This is known as a run on the bank. It caused banks to have to liquidate their assets in order to cover their customers’ deposits. Banks did not often keep large sums of money in their safes; most invested it for their customers. When banks could not liquidate their assets quickly or received lesser than their value, it would often force them to shut down completely. Added to this was the devaluation of their assets by multiple banks attempting to liquidate at one time.
The unemployed wait outside a depression era soup kitchen. Photo curtesy of the National Archives.
As banks collapse, the amount of money in circulation decreases, resulting in individuals choosing to spend less money. A decrease in consumer spending meant that factories had to either layoff employees or reduced their wages. It also causes a rapid deflation of currency to occur. In the case of the Great Depression, some 15 million people were without jobs. People from all classes went bankrupt and failed to pay their debts or mortgages, which also contributed to the bank failures. Homelessness and a lack of food touched many Americans during this time. There were long lines of people waiting at bread lines and the soup kitchen.
The Hersey Hotel. Photo Curtesy of the Hershey Community Archive.
However, as with all things, there are exceptions to the rule. Though the Great Depression touched nearly 15 million people, not every area was affected as hard. Milton S. Hershey did what he could to protect his town and employees from feeling the effects of the Great Depression. Significantly, Hershey embarked on a massive building project that included the Hershey Hotel, Catherine Hall, The HersheyPark Arena, two theaters, and the Windowless Hershey’s Office Building.[6] At a time when Hershey could have laid off employees, he purposefully chose to keep his employees working. Hershey hired some six hundred unemployed due to the depression to work on the construction projects.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Frank, Glenn. “Fourteen Points on the Market Crash.” St. Louis Post Dispatch. October 25, 1929.
Mccutcheon, John T. , Artist, Publisher Chicago Tribune, and Copyright Claimant Chicago Tribune. A Wise Economist Asks a Question. , ca. 1931. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2016683751/.
Bernanke, Ben S. “Nonmonetary Effects of the Financial Crisis in the Propagation of the Great Depression.” The American Economic Review 73, no. 3 (1983): 257-76. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1808111.
Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers. “Ben Bernanke versus Milton Friedman: The Federal Reserve’s Emergence as the U.S. Economy’s Central Planner.” The Independent Review 15, no. 4 (2011): 485-518. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24562480.
[1] David C. Wheelock, “The Role of Bank Failures and Panics,” Economic Education Workshop, Lecture presented at the Economic Education Workshop, accessed November 27, 2020.
[2] Jeffrey Rogers Hummel, “Ben Bernanke versus Milton Friedman: The Federal Reserve’s Emergence as the U.S. Economy’s Central Planner,” The Independent Review 15, no. 4 (2011): 485. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24562480.
[4] Ben S.Bernake, “Nonmonetary Effects of the Financial Crisis in the Propagation of the Great Depression,” The American Economic Review 73, no. 3 (1983): 258. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1808111.
Milton Hershey. Photo curtesy of the Hershey Archives.
It is hard to imagine when chocolate was handmade and a luxury only the rich could afford. However, it was not all that long ago. Chocolate was not Hershey’s first foray into candy-making. In 1883, he started the Lancaster Caramel Company. He had learned during his time in Colorado that fresh milk made the best caramel. His company was an overnight success. In 1900, he sold the Lancaster Caramel Company for $1 million.[1]
In 1893 while visiting the World’s Columbia Expedition, Hershey discovered J.M. Lehmann’s Chocolate making equipment, which he promptly purchased for $20,000.[2] In the meantime, Hershey was busy perfecting his formula for his chocolate, one that could be mass-produced. In 1903, Hershey broke ground on his new factory, and by 1905 it was open and ready to start producing. Hershey insisted on having only the best and most up to date equipment; if it did not exist, modifications were made to the equipment on hand.
While Hershey may not have discovered milk chocolate, the Swiss are to be thanked for their contribution. He did, however, find a way to make it affordable, only $.05 and more readily available to the public. Additionally, Hershey’s was the first nationally marketed chocolate bar. Introduced in 1900, the Hershey Bar provided Milton Hershey the first of many of his creations. In the company’s first year, Hershey sold $1 million worth of chocolate. Two of Hershey’s other popular products created within the first ten years of switching from caramel to chocolate include the Hershey Kiss in 1907, which helped the company increase its profit to $2 million, and the Almond Joy in 1908.[3]
Milton Hershey had a unique philosophy in that he believed in sharing the wealth. His philosophy could be the result of the Mennonite influence in his life through his mother. Hershey did not want to be like other industrialists and their company towns. Instead, Hershey provided his employees with the opportunity to purchase comfortable homes, with streets lined with real trees. Not only did he build neighborhoods, but he also designed and created beautiful parks. Additionally, schools, public transportation, department stores, and hospitals were built within the first ten years.
Milton Hershey with the boys of the Hershey Industrial School. Photo curtesy of the Hershey Archives.
Realizing that he and his wife, Catherine, could never have children, Hershey invested profits from his company to build and endow the Hershey Industrial School for orphaned low-income boys. The school’s primary focus was to prepare the boys to live happy and full lives while providing skills to obtain work. Milton Hershey did whatever was necessary to ensure that those children had a quality education that would ensure their success; this is likely connected to the fact that he only had a fourth-grade education. Hershey had dropped out of school to help the family when his mother kicked his father out. According to oral histories preserved in the Hershey Archives, Hershey focused more on the school while having a more qualified individual run the business.[4] When Hershey died in 1945, the school inherited his fortune in a trust provided for the students. The school still exists today and provides a boarding-school atmosphere for some 2000 students, both boys and girls living in low-income families.[5]
Milton S. Hershey was a fascinating businessman; there is so much more to uncover about him, his business, and his contributions to society. I intend to look further at some of his significant contributions, such as his great building project during the Great Depression and the Field Ration D bars that fed American soldiers during World War II, in the next blog post.
Bothfeld and Weygandt. Letter to Milton S. Hershey. “J.M. Lehmann Company.” Hershey, PA: Hershey Archives, January 11, 1894.
Ginzl, David J. “Industrialist and idealist: Milton S. Hershey, the chocolate king: business acumen and idealistic values defined the life of Milton Hershey.” Commercial Lending Review Sept.-Oct. 2006: 38+. Business Insights: Global. Web. November 20, 2020.
[4] The Hershey Archives can be found at https://hersheyarchives.org/ it is full of oral histories from men and women who either worked in Hershey’s factories in the early days or who grew up in the school and neighborhood. For more information see: “Who Was Milton Hershey: His History & Life: The Hershey Story,” The Hershey Story Museum (The Hershey Story, June 9, 2015), https://hersheystory.org/milton-hershey-history/.
The Evening Missourian. [volume] (Columbia, Mo.), 11 Nov. 1918. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress.
One Hundred and Two years ago on November 11, 1918, at 5:00 am, the Germans finally gave in and agreed to an Armistice with the Allied forces bringing an end to World War I. Officially, it was the eleventh hour, of the eleventh day, of the eleventh month that the powers that be sat down to formally sign the agreement.
Courtesy of the House of Representatives
One year later, Woodrow Wilson would urge Americans to remember solemnly those lost in the war, officially observing for the first time the anniversary of the war’s end. On May 13, 1938, Congress would officially recognized November 11th to be an official holiday
To us in America the reflections of Armistice Day will be filled with solemn pride in the heroism of those who died in the country’s service, and with gratitude for the victory, both because of the thing from which it has freed us and because of the opportunity it has given America to show her sympathy with peace and justice in the councils of nations.
Woodrow Wilson, November 11, 1919 Address from the White House.
After the ending of World War II, at the urging of a veteran of the war Armistice Day was changed to Veteran’s Day in recognition of All American Veterans of all wars. On October 8, 1954 President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a veteran himself of World War II issues a proclamation in recognition of the first official Veteran’s Day.
I know first hand the sacrifice our men and women make for this country every day. From long hours at work, to deployments, and temporary duty assignments that take them away from their loved ones. They often miss recitals, birthdays, first steps, first words and so many of the important events in their children’s lives. Yet, they do it willingly, they volunteer to go to the most dangerous places on earth to keep the enemy from coming to our shores. They are willing to accept the cost of going into harm’s way knowing that they may never see their family again. These are exceptional men and women who have served in our Armed Forces. The families that stand behind them are exception. The wives who not only run the home while their spouse is away, but who keeps spirits high and problems at home to herself so that her husband does not inadvertently put himself in danger. The kids who just want their dad to tuck them in at night, or to play catch in the yard, or the mother who just wants her child to come home safely. They do so much for us, the least we can do is Thank them for their service.
So today and every day, I honor the brave men and women of our Armed Services and thank them for the sacrifice they are willing to make so that we can continue to live in the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave!
Since the beginning of time, death has played a role in the lives of every person. Disease, the lack of proper nutrition, the lack of sanitary conditions, childbirth, and the lack of medical knowledge often played a role in the average life span.[1] In pre-Civil War America, mourning and funerals were deeply personal. The Civil War, however, brought new meaning to death in America. The war’s casualties brought about the need for creating new practices in the funeral industry, and by the end of the Civil War, those new practices had changed the way Americans mourned their loved ones. The 1900s saw funeral practices, and mourning customs started to shift even more to private affairs.
To better understand the shift in customs and practices, it is essential to understand where they started. In pre-Civil War America, death, though familiar and a part of everyday life was deeply personal. Funerals took place in the home, with women and men from the community assisting the family in preparing the body for burial by washing and laying out the body. Someone would sit up with the body for three days to ensure that death had occurred, and the men would dig graves.[2] In other words, only those who knew the family closely would actively participate in ensuring a proper funeral. However, the Civil War will actively change the practice.
Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress
Mourning customs, however, did not change as much during the war era. According to the National Museum of Civil War Medicine, men were not exempt from mourning customs. They did, however, have it significantly easier than women. The appropriate mourning attire consisted of a dark or black suit with a black armband or hatband for men. Mourning expectations for widowers did not exceed three months.[3] Unlike their counterpart, widows remained in mourning for two and a half years. Dress for women in mourning encompassed three stages – Deep Mourning, Second Mourning, and Half Mourning. In a deep mourning period, women wore black dresses with no trim, and the only acceptable jewelry was jet—furthermore, women in deep mourning worn long veils initially made of crepe.[4] Due to health concerns, however, the crepe veils were discontinued. [5] Each subsequent mourning stage lessened the restrictions upon women based upon colors they could and could not wear.[6] Additionally, mourning was dependent upon the individual that died.
Mourning should be worn, as we are told by a professed authority,
For a husband or wife, from one to two years, though some widows retain their mourning for life.
For a parent or grandparent, from six months to a year.
For children above ten years of age, from six months to a year; for those below that age, from three to six months; and for an infant, six or seven weeks.
For brothers and sisters, six to eight months.
For uncles and aunts, three to six months.
For cousins, or uncles or aunts related by marriage, from six weeks to three months.
For more distant relatives or friends, from three weeks to as many months, according to the degree of intimacy. [7]
Photo Courtesy of the Library of Congress
Additionally, there are rules about receiving visitors, sending and receiving mail, and invitations and announcements for the deceased.[8]
The Civil War brought the advent of embalming. This process preserved the body to prevent decomposition from occurring immediately, enabling bodies to be shipped from the battlefield to home. In many cases, the embalming process occurred on the battlefield, and the body was delivered to their home’s front door. In April 1865 and the two-week viewing and travel schedule that finally took him home to Springfield, Illinois, the death of Abraham Lincoln created a powerful marketing tool for the idea of a non-decomposing body.[9] This new marketing tool paved the way for the undertaker to earn an income by selling his services.
The late 1800s through to the early 1900s saw professional undertakers’ creation, with schools for morticians as they now would be called forming around 1882.[10] Funerals moved out of the home and into newly created funeral parlors. Caskets became more of what we know today, and the process and responsibility for preparing the body for burial no longer fell to the women of the community. Though, in rural areas, this remained the exception. One such funeral home is the Diuguid Funeral Home, located in Lynchburg, VA.
According to their website, the Diuguid Funeral Home is the second oldest funeral home in America and the first one in Virginia. Started by Sampson Diuguid, a hand-carved furniture maker known for his craftsmanship, the Funeral Home started by happenstance rather than design. As his reputation grew for his furniture, Diuguid started receiving requests for coffins. On an exciting note, the Diuguid’s are responsible for designing and creating a church truck, which in the funeral industry allows for the casket to move up church aisles without the need for pallbearers to carry it.[11]
Page out of an 1870s ledger belonging to the Diuguid Funeral Home.
The cost of funerals in 1870 varied, as evidenced by this ledger. Notice that according to this particular page, that funerals cost anywhere from $30 to $75. Is this the typical range of pricing for funerals? Another page from the same year shows us that no, this is not the typical range of funeral prices. The ledger below shows that the price ranges from $10 to $130 for Col. R.R. Garland.[12]
Page out of an 1870s ledger belonging to the Diuguid Funeral Home.
“For Fashionable Mourning.” The Delineator, October 1900.
By 1900, funeral practices and mourning customs started to shift. Though most of the mourning clothing remained the same, there are slight differences in the styles. Fabrics also changed, and it was increasingly popular to purchase mourning clothing instead of making it at home.
Additionally, prices did not necessarily reflect change so much as it did the financial standing of the family paying for the funeral. Funeral homes tended to charge those who were well off more for their funerals than someone who could not afford it. In fact, in Lynchburg, there was an Overseer of the Poor who often paid for the services provided by the funeral at a significantly lower cost. The ledgers of the Diuguid Funeral Home in 1900 changed significantly from a hand-written ledger to a pre-printed ledger that recorded more information such as cause of death and much of the information that can now be found on death certificates. In fact, their records are so detailed that should a record not exist for an individual with the State records it is highly possible that Diuguid’s records contain what any researcher or genealogist may need to locate.
A page from a 1900s ledger belonging to Diuguid.
As it can be seen in 1900, according to this ledger page costs could go as high as $365 for a prominent member of society, but $4 for a two week old infant. Notice how the ledger side is completely different from the 1870s pages where the funeral home did not retain data.
No longer did families build homes with funerals in mind, no longer did the decease remain in the home until burial. Funeral Services had altered significantly the way that families mourned. The death of a loved one went from a very public showing to a more reserved private affair.
[1] According to the National Park Services, the average life span during 1870 was 50. See for more information: “The Custom of Mourning during the Victorian Era,” The Custom of Mourning during the Victorian Era (Washington, DC: National Park Services, 0AD), 1.
[3] For more information see: Louis Antoine Godey and Sarah Josepha Buell Hale, Godey’s Lady’s Book (Philadelphia, PA: Louis A. Godey, 1864), 186; Alice A. Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine (Toronto, Canada: The John C. Winston Co., Limited, 1909), 193; Kelly Christian, “Good Mourning America: Good Death and Loss in the 19th Century,” National Museum of Civil War Medicine (National Museum of Civil War Medicine, August 23, 2017), https://www.civilwarmed.org/good-death/.
[4] Alice A. Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine (Toronto, Canada: The John C. Winston Co., Limited, 1909), 193.
[8] Note: In sending letters of condolence, announcements of death and sending letters of acknowledgment from received letters that the paper is edged in black. For more information see: Tomes, The Bazar Book of Decorum, 270; Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine 194; Florence Hartley et al., The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness: a Complete Hand Book for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society: Containing Full Directions for Correct Manners, Dress, Deportment, and Conversation, Rules for the Duties of Both Hostess and Guest in Morning Receptions, Dinner Companies, Visiting, Evening Parties and Balls, a Complete Guide for Letter Writing and Cards of Compliment, Hints on Managing Servants, on the Preservation of Health, and on Accomplishments: and Also Useful Receipts for the Complexion, Hair, and with Hints and Directions for the Care of the Wardrobe (Boston, MA: G. W. COTTRELL, 1860), 32-35.
The Solitary Historian 
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