In Enemy Hands: Prisoners of War and Dr. Lieber’s Code

Posted on July 1, 2022 by The Solitary Historian

“So it is to the United States of North America and to President Lincoln that belongs the honor of having taken the initiative in defining with precision the customs and laws of war. This first official attempt to codify the customs of war and to collect in a code the rule binding upon military forces has notably contributed to impress the character of humanity upon the conduct of the northern states in the course of that war.”

F. de Martens, “Précis du Droit des Gens moderne de l’Euorpe,” 1879
Letter from Partillia E. Bell to Abraham Lincoln, Thursday, February 18, 1864 seeking her husband’s release from Alton Prison.
Image from the Library of Congress.

Imagine it is June 1862; the war rages all around. Soldiers fall in battle; some severely wounded, and the enemy takes others as prisoners. Now fast forward to a couple of days later, those soldiers traveled either on foot or by train to where they will spend their time as prisoners of war. They walk up to the gates. They walk in; this is their hell on earth. Depending on if the soldiers are Union or Confederate will determine their prison. Salisbury Prison in North Carolina is likely the place a Union soldier would end up. Alton prison in Illinois might be the temporary home of Confederate soldiers. Both prisons could safely hold between 1750 to 2500 prisoners. However, by the time both closed, they far exceeded their capacity. Conditions varied at both camps, with Salisbury prison initially having more favorable conditions. Alton, on the other hand, was quite different. The extreme weather conditions from hot summers to frigid winters led to 300 men dying from smallpox in the winter of 1862 and the spring of 1863.

Salisbury Prison, 1864
Photo from the Library of Congress

As the war progressed, there were more than 150 prison camps across the North and South. Prisoner exchanges had stopped, the camps became overcrowded, and diseases ran rampant throughout them. Food supplies were in shortage, especially in the South, where the blockade prevented the transportation of needed supplies. Camps in the North and South lacked adequate shelter, with some, such as Andersonville, failing to provide it. Fresh water and sanitation continued to be problematic in some areas. Of the roughly 400,000 men held as prisoners of war, approximately 56,000 died in captivity.

When the Civil War started in April 1861, there were no specific rules or regulations on dealing with prisoners of war. The Articles of 1806, under which the Union army operated, did not contain any specific language or guidelines on the definitions, treatment, or conditions determining who qualified as prisoners. Nor did it address the treatment they were to receive or the provision of clothing, shelter, food, or medical care.

Out of pressure on President Abraham Lincoln to have an official stance on exchanging prisoners, Union Major General John A. Dix and Confederate Major General Daniel Harvey Hill met to create an unofficial agreement. Signed on July 22, 1862, the Dix-Hill Cartel provided for an even exchange of prisoners based on rank. Though it was well-intentioned, inconsistencies plagued it from the start and ended soon after.

Francis Lieber
Photo from the Brady-Handy Collection at the Library of Congress

The need for a comprehensive set of rules and laws for war became evident. Nevertheless, who was qualified to create such rules? The army needed someone who understood the concept of a total and just war. Someone who understood not only traditional rules but one who could modernize the rules as war changed. Enter Dr. Francis Lieber. Lieber experienced war as a young man, having fought at Waterloo and Ligny against Napoleon in 1817. He and General Halleck had corresponded for years about the rules and laws of war. So when the need arose to have definitive answers on handling issues such as guerilla warfare, spies, parole, and prisoners of war, Halleck turned to Lieber and appointed him to a special board comprised of Lieber and four army officers. Lieber completed his project within a couple of months. Lincoln approved it and issued it on April 24, 1863, to the Union Army as General Orders No. 100.

Front page of Lieber’s A Code for the Government of Armies in the Field as Authorized by the Laws and Usages of War on Land.

Many historians and military leaders look to Lieber’s Code as a law of military necessity, yet Section III holds the most critical aspect of this code. Within this section lies the definition of a prisoner of war, and it details essential facts such as how to treat them, concerns with medical care, and basic provisions such as food, clothing, and shelter. It addressed the means of exchanging prisoners and, most notably, was retaliation an acceptable punishment. It was the first time in modern United States history that the Articles of War now had provisions for the appropriate treatment of prisoners of war.

Nevertheless, some questions have not received enough attention. Would the Confederacy respond to the revisions of the Articles of War? Would they recognize and utilize the new laws in their treatment of prisoners? It is widely recognized that the Confederate prison camps, such as Andersonville, did not operate under the Lieber Code, yet was there a possibility of the Confederacy ever doing so? What motivation could Lieber have in creating the newly revised rules? What role, if any, does morality play in war? In addition to these questions, a further question remains, what was the legacy of Lieber’s Code? What impact would it have not only on the way the United States military-operated, but would international military law find common ground with it? Indeed, many international military laws regarding prisoners of war claimed as their foundational document that inspired their final product as Dr. Francis Lieber and his Code.

Colorized photo of my 3rd Great Grandfather Henry Allen Brigman. He was imprisoned at Hart’s Island in New York during the Civil War as a POW.

My research is a work in progress. I started researching prisoners of war nearly twenty years ago when I discovered family members who were prisoners of war during the Civil War. Their stories are what inspired me to learn all that I can about the rules and laws governing prison camps and the treatment of prisoners. I wanted to know why one family member never returned home, and the how and why another managed to return. Most importantly, I want to know more about the man who created these laws, to know why and how he selected the positions that ultimately became the defining laws. There is still more to be discovered about Lieber, the committee that aided him in creating the newly revised laws, the way the Union army implemented and put into practice the laws, the opinion of the Confederacy, and its legacy.

Posted in History | Tagged , , , | Leave a comment

Old Cemeteries and Historians

Posted on March 24, 2021 by The Solitary Historian
Colonial Era Graves at Mt. Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, MD

Most people think of cemeteries as a place you visit to bury a loved one, and maybe visit their grave occasionally. Historians, on the other hand, see history and not just any history but local history. When others are avoiding them, we are searching for them. The stories that are often just waiting to be told from the past are often connected to old cemeteries. For example, the photo above is Mt. Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, Maryland. Now, I am not from the area, but I was there to explore some Civil War history when I discovered that this particular place has some neat history tied into it by the graves within. I discovered that Francis Scott Key, his wife and his parents are buried here. Along the back road, there are also unknown graves of Civil War soldiers. But these are not the only people buried there, everyday common people who lived through unique times have their own unique stories to tell.

Cemeteries have more than stories of those buried there to tell us. By walking old cemeteries we can learn about architecture and design by studying the monuments and how they changed through the ages.

A grave in Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA

Take a look at this 19th century monument. Notice how intricate the details are in the lilies. Can you imagine the hours it took the artist to carve the lilies out of stone? It does not necessarily mean that because this monument is so ornate that the individual was loved more than say the photo below. It does however, mean that the style and era had changed

Table style monument at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA

In stark contrast to this beautiful memorial, stands the 18th century style known as tables. These were more prominent in England but carried over into the Southeast section of the country. They are however, not as prominent as one might think in that they are rarely found. If they are, they are typically collapsed.

My son’s grave at Salem Baptist Church Cemetery in Douglas, Ga.

Today, monuments or grave markers can be beautiful without the overly intricate designs. Note that while they are not always so intricate as in the past, they are still capable of expressing the love of a dearly departed.

Stone Headstone for Dr. James Brown, Lynchburg, Virginia, April 25, 1824.
Marker of Dr. James Brown, Presbyterian Cemetery, Lynchburg Virginia.

Did you know you could learn a lot about a town’s local history simply by walking and exploring old cemeteries? Well, it’s true! I am personally, not from this area so exploring old cemeteries allows me to learn something about the history of it. Take for example, the headstone to the right for Dr. James Brown. Finding this particular marker has allowed me the opportunity to do a little research on him. Born in Scotland he settled in an area of Amherst County known as “New Glasgow.” This tells me as a historian, that the area was in all probability heavily populated by Scottish immigrants. Furthermore, the research indicates that he was a physician at the University of Edinburgh before moving to the United States. He had two sons, one a lawyer, the other also a doctor and also educated at the University of Edinburgh. In another interesting connection, Dr. Brown served as a physician to the future Virginia governor, William H. Cabell who lived in 1795 at Union Hill in Amherst County.

Guggenheimer Bench at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA

Historians can also put together sketches of the community by the names they come across while walking cemeteries. For example, the image above is the Guggenheimer Bench, notice how large it is with the name prominently displayed in the top. For reference, the grave makers are across the circle from the bench. The name Guggenheimer comes from the Jewish community. Could Lynchburg have had a sizeable Jewish community or was it a small one with just a few families? This is the type of questions that historians can ask when they are exploring areas. This historian learned that the Guggenheimer family owned a large department store on Main Street here in Lynchburg during the late 19th century. The parents were originally from Germany when they migrated to the United States. Charles Max Guggenheimer was born in 1860 and just six short years later his father, Nathaniel died.

Grave of War of 1812 veteran Samuel Garland
Grave of Civil War Major General Samuel Garland Jr.

As a military historian, I personally love searching for veterans within old cemeteries. In the past when I moved to a new city it was typically because the military sent us there. Today, my husband is retired and we no longer move based on where the military sends us. Walking through old cemeteries allows me to connect with the military history the town might hold. While not every town had a military presence, many sent young men to fight in some war. It is not unusual to walk within a cemetery and find veterans that range from the American Revolution through the Iraq/Afghanistan wars.

As a Civil War specialist finding Civil War graves excites the inner researcher in me. It drives me to learn more about not just the individual (what battles he may have fought in) but the unit in which he served. Samuel Garland, Jr. started as a colonel with the 11th Virginia, which was part of Jubal Early’s brigade. When Early is wounded in the Battle of Williamsburg, Garland is promoted to brigadier general and placed in command of Early’s brigade. His first action as commander was at Seven Pines. In September 1862, during the Battle of South Mountain, Garland was situated around a place called Fox’s Gap. It is there that Garland is mortally wounded. His body is returned home to Lynchburg where it laid in state and on September 19, 1862 he is laid to rest in the Presbyterian Cemetery near his wife and son.

9/11 Memorial at Presbyterian Cemetery in Lynchburg, VA

Old cemeteries have stories to tell, from veterans to the average citizen these stories lay buried in their plots with them. Historians can use information gathered from grave markers to kick start research whether it is local history or military history. They can learn about changes in how grave markers evolved or changed over time. Grave markers are not always the only type of monuments found in cemeteries. In many cases, there are ornate statuary in designs of angels, wishing wells and even 9/11 memorials. Old cemeteries are not meant just for ghost tours or saying goodbye to loved ones, inside each one there is something special to discover. It is up to you to get out and explore them and discover their secrets.

Posted in History | 1 Comment

2020 and the Impact on History!

Posted on March 15, 2021 by The Solitary Historian

This past March while I was away with a group of students participating in a Civil War travel course, things got hectic. While we were busily traveling through Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama and back to Tennessee the world was hit with a pandemic. One that has changed the way the world functions, including historians!

(This post was originally started back in December) 

Historians, museums and other public history locations have had to rethink how they approach history with an audience that is no longer feeling safe to travel to visit battlefields, museums or attend lectures. One aspect that historians in general both academic and public, utilized has been the “Zoom” or “Facebook Live” format. In this way, they have been able to conduct lectures, virtual tours, and just have conversations with authors about newly published books. One such Historian that appears to have made an impact and encouraged others to start utilizing Zoom or Facebook live is The Tattooed Historian. Yes, I know his real name but to make it easier for others to locate his page on Facebook it makes more sense to use his page name. For weeks, John and Dr. Peter Carmichael welcomed scholars across the broad spectrum that is Civil War history to discuss their recently published books. These books ranged in topics from Prisoners of War to the United States Colored Troops. Each new “conversation” also gave viewers the opportunity to ask questions in addition to purchasing the book being discussed at a discounted price from the publisher.

They were not alone, as the National Parks across the country jumped in on the opportunity to develop an online presence that enabled individuals to learn more about the parks, hear stories of survival from the park rangers of men who fought on some of the battlefields, hear stories of heartbreak and yes even intrigue.

This year saw so many historical sites closed down for an indefinite period that it was necessary to create online opportunities such as these. Historical sites are finally opening up, though for the foreseeable future it looks like there will be COVID restrictions in place. Many of these sites have struggled to stay afloat as they survive on donations and admission fees to some of these locations, while others are fortunate to be apart of the National Parks System. Here is hoping that families, students and scholars start getting back out to these sites and exploring history to better understand where this nation comes from while supporting a truly worthwhile cause. I know I personally will be getting out and hitting the Civil War Trails as I further explore the movements of a unit from New York. Hope to see you out there!

Posted in History | Leave a comment

Panics at the Bank: A Theory of the Great Depression

Posted on November 27, 2020 by The Solitary Historian
Published in the St. Louis Post Dispatch on October 25, 1929. Newspapers.com

To better understand the economic theories behind the Great Depression, one must first know about the Great Depression. The Great Depression was the worst economic fall in the industrial world. It initiated in the Stock Market crash of October 1929. Though it briefly bounced back in April 1930, the Great Depression lasted until 1939. There are many theories as to what contributed to the Great Depression, and this blog seeks to explore only one theory.

This blog intends to explore the idea that as the stock market crashed in October 1929, banks experienced customer panics in which customers removed their savings, causing the banks to run out of money. In addition to the bank panics, the problem was exacerbated because the United States functioned financially on the Gold standard at pre-war rates.

According to David C. Wheelock, Group Vice President and Deputy Researcher at the St. Louis Federal Reserve, banking panics result from customers losing confidence, thus causing bank runs. The runs themselves drank the bank of their reserves, which causes a loss of reserves forcing backs to contract loans. The contraction of loans then causes the money stock to fall, which results in reduced spending. Reduced spending, in turn, equates to unemployment, deflation, and lower output of production.[1]

Individuals standing outside the American Union Bank in New York in 1932. Photo curtesy of the National Archives.

Economists Ben Bernake and Milton Friedman both argue that the bank runs of 1930 that followed the crash of 1929 are what made the Great Depression. They believe that the Federal Reserve could have stepped in to offset the fall.[2]  However, they differ on what caused or contributed to the collapse of the economic system. Friedman contends that the money stock changes resulted in the contraction of income.[3] While Bernake agrees with Friedman, he does take a different approach explaining why bank runs caused prolonged depression.

Bernake contends that there are two primary issues in the financial collapse. The first was a loss of confidence in financial institutions such as commercial banks, and the second widespread debtors’ insolvency.[4]  Bernake argues that the closure of over nine thousand banks during the bank runs contributed significantly to the overall interruption of credit flow, contributing to output contraction.[5]

Editorial Cartoon by John Mccutcheon, published in the Chicago Tribune in 1931. Mccutcheon won a Pulitzer Prize for this editorial cartoon.

So what does this mean in laymen’s terms? It means that when the stock market crashed in 1929, people around the country got nervous and started pulling their money out of the banks.  This is known as a run on the bank. It caused banks to have to liquidate their assets in order to cover their customers’ deposits. Banks did not often keep large sums of money in their safes; most invested it for their customers. When banks could not liquidate their assets quickly or received lesser than their value, it would often force them to shut down completely. Added to this was the devaluation of their assets by multiple banks attempting to liquidate at one time.

The unemployed wait outside a depression era soup kitchen. Photo curtesy of the National Archives.

As banks collapse, the amount of money in circulation decreases, resulting in individuals choosing to spend less money. A decrease in consumer spending meant that factories had to either layoff employees or reduced their wages. It also causes a rapid deflation of currency to occur. In the case of the Great Depression, some 15 million people were without jobs. People from all classes went bankrupt and failed to pay their debts or mortgages, which also contributed to the bank failures.  Homelessness and a lack of food touched many Americans during this time. There were long lines of people waiting at bread lines and the soup kitchen.

The Hersey Hotel.
Photo Curtesy of the Hershey Community Archive.

However, as with all things, there are exceptions to the rule. Though the Great Depression touched nearly 15 million people, not every area was affected as hard. Milton S. Hershey did what he could to protect his town and employees from feeling the effects of the Great Depression. Significantly, Hershey embarked on a massive building project that included the Hershey Hotel, Catherine Hall, The HersheyPark Arena, two theaters, and the Windowless Hershey’s Office Building.[6]  At a time when Hershey could have laid off employees, he purposefully chose to keep his employees working. Hershey hired some six hundred unemployed due to the depression to work on the construction projects.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Frank, Glenn. “Fourteen Points on the Market Crash.” St. Louis Post Dispatch. October 25, 1929.

Mccutcheon, John T. , Artist, Publisher Chicago Tribune, and Copyright Claimant Chicago Tribune. A Wise Economist Asks a Question. , ca. 1931. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2016683751/.

Secondary Sources

“Milton S. Hershey – Chocolate Maker and Altruist,” June 25, 2020. https://www.mhskids.org/about/history/milton-s-hershey/.

Bernanke, Ben S. “Nonmonetary Effects of the Financial Crisis in the Propagation of the Great Depression.” The American Economic Review 73, no. 3 (1983): 257-76. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1808111.

Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers. “Ben Bernanke versus Milton Friedman: The Federal Reserve’s Emergence as the U.S. Economy’s Central Planner.” The Independent Review 15, no. 4 (2011): 485-518. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24562480.

Wheelock, David C. “The Role of Bank Failures and Panics.” Federal Reserve Bank at St. Louis. Lecture presented at the Economic Education Workshop. Accessed November 27, 2020. https://www.stlouisfed.org/the-great-depression/curriculum/economic-episodes-in-american-history-part-6

[1]  David C. Wheelock, “The Role of Bank Failures and Panics,” Economic Education Workshop, Lecture presented at the Economic Education Workshop, accessed November 27, 2020.

[2] Jeffrey Rogers Hummel, “Ben Bernanke versus Milton Friedman: The Federal Reserve’s Emergence as the U.S. Economy’s Central Planner,” The Independent Review 15, no. 4 (2011): 485. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24562480.

[3] Ibid. 486.  

[4]  Ben S.Bernake, “Nonmonetary Effects of the Financial Crisis in the Propagation of the Great Depression,” The American Economic Review 73, no. 3 (1983): 258. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1808111.

[5] Hummel, 486.

[6] “Milton S. Hershey – Chocolate Maker and Altruist,” June 25, 2020, https://www.mhskids.org/about/history/milton-s-hershey/.  

Posted in History | 1 Comment

Milton S. Hershey: Chocolate and the Philanthropist

Posted on November 20, 2020 by The Solitary Historian
Milton Hershey.
Photo curtesy of the Hershey Archives.

It is hard to imagine when chocolate was handmade and a luxury only the rich could afford. However, it was not all that long ago. Chocolate was not Hershey’s first foray into candy-making. In 1883, he started the Lancaster Caramel Company. He had learned during his time in Colorado that fresh milk made the best caramel. His company was an overnight success. In 1900, he sold the Lancaster Caramel Company for $1 million.[1]

In 1893 while visiting the World’s Columbia Expedition, Hershey discovered J.M. Lehmann’s Chocolate making equipment, which he promptly purchased for $20,000.[2]  In the meantime, Hershey was busy perfecting his formula for his chocolate, one that could be mass-produced. In 1903, Hershey broke ground on his new factory, and by 1905 it was open and ready to start producing.  Hershey insisted on having only the best and most up to date equipment; if it did not exist, modifications were made to the equipment on hand.

While Hershey may not have discovered milk chocolate, the Swiss are to be thanked for their contribution. He did, however, find a way to make it affordable, only $.05 and more readily available to the public. Additionally, Hershey’s was the first nationally marketed chocolate bar. Introduced in 1900, the Hershey Bar provided Milton Hershey the first of many of his creations. In the company’s first year, Hershey sold $1 million worth of chocolate. Two of Hershey’s other popular products created within the first ten years of switching from caramel to chocolate include the Hershey Kiss in 1907, which helped the company increase its profit to $2 million, and the Almond Joy in 1908.[3]

Milton Hershey had a unique philosophy in that he believed in sharing the wealth. His philosophy could be the result of the Mennonite influence in his life through his mother. Hershey did not want to be like other industrialists and their company towns. Instead, Hershey provided his employees with the opportunity to purchase comfortable homes, with streets lined with real trees. Not only did he build neighborhoods, but he also designed and created beautiful parks. Additionally, schools, public transportation, department stores, and hospitals were built within the first ten years.

Milton Hershey with the boys of the Hershey Industrial School. Photo curtesy of the Hershey Archives.

Realizing that he and his wife, Catherine, could never have children, Hershey invested profits from his company to build and endow the Hershey Industrial School for orphaned low-income boys. The school’s primary focus was to prepare the boys to live happy and full lives while providing skills to obtain work.  Milton Hershey did whatever was necessary to ensure that those children had a quality education that would ensure their success; this is likely connected to the fact that he only had a fourth-grade education. Hershey had dropped out of school to help the family when his mother kicked his father out. According to oral histories preserved in the Hershey Archives, Hershey focused more on the school while having a more qualified individual run the business.[4] When Hershey died in 1945, the school inherited his fortune in a trust provided for the students. The school still exists today and provides a boarding-school atmosphere for some 2000 students, both boys and girls living in low-income families.[5]

Milton S. Hershey was a fascinating businessman; there is so much more to uncover about him, his business, and his contributions to society. I intend to look further at some of his significant contributions, such as his great building project during the Great Depression and the Field Ration D bars that fed American soldiers during World War II, in the next blog post.

Bibliography

“The Man,” 2020. https://www.thehersheycompany.com/en_us/our-story/milton-hershey/the-man.html.

“Milton Hershey.” Philanthropy Roundtable. The Philanthropy Roundtable, 2020. https://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/people/hall-of-fame/detail/milton-hershey.

“Milton S. Hershey – Chocolate Maker and Altruist,” June 25, 2020. https://www.mhskids.org/about/history/milton-s-hershey/.

“Milton S. Hershey,” 2020. https://www.hersheypa.com/about-hershey/milton-hershey.php.

“Milton S. Hershey.” Entrepreneur. Entrepreneur Media, October 8, 2008. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/197530.

“Who Was Milton Hershey: His History & Life: The Hershey Story.” The Hershey Story Museum. The Hershey Story, June 9, 2015. https://hersheystory.org/milton-hershey-history/.

Attarian, John. “Moral Lessons in a Candy Wrapper.” The World & I, 07, 1999. 278, http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F235837139%3Faccountid%3D12085.

Bothfeld and Weygandt. Letter to Milton S. Hershey. “J.M. Lehmann Company.” Hershey, PA: Hershey Archives, January 11, 1894.

Ginzl, David J. “Industrialist and idealist: Milton S. Hershey, the chocolate king: business acumen and idealistic values defined the life of Milton Hershey.” Commercial Lending Review Sept.-Oct. 2006: 38+. Business Insights: Global. Web. November 20, 2020.

Yenkowski, Gary. Arthur R. Whiteman Oral History. Other. Accessed November 19, 2020. https://gencat1.eloquent-systems.com/webcat/request/Action?ClientSession=-482f532b:175df1cd829:-7ec3&UniqueID=6000_3355_4&TemplateProcessID=6000_3355&PromptID=&ParamID=&TemplateProcessID=6000_1051_1051&PromptID=&ParamID=&CMD_(DetailRequest)%5B0%5D=&ProcessID=6000_3363(0)&KeyValues=KEY_OH00200127.

[1] “Who Was Milton Hershey: His History & Life: The Hershey Story,” The Hershey Story Museum (The Hershey Story, June 9, 2015), https://hersheystory.org/milton-hershey-history/.

[2] “Milton S. Hershey,” 2020, https://www.hersheypa.com/about-hershey/milton-hershey.php.

[3] “Milton Hershey,” Philanthropy Roundtable (The Philanthropy Roundtable, 2020), https://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/people/hall-of-fame/detail/milton-hershey.

[4] The Hershey Archives can be found at https://hersheyarchives.org/ it is full of oral histories from men and women who either worked in Hershey’s factories in the early days or who grew up in the school and neighborhood. For more information see: “Who Was Milton Hershey: His History & Life: The Hershey Story,” The Hershey Story Museum (The Hershey Story, June 9, 2015), https://hersheystory.org/milton-hershey-history/.

[5]“Milton S. Hershey – Chocolate Maker and Altruist,” June 25, 2020, https://www.mhskids.org/about/history/milton-s-hershey/.

Posted in History | Leave a comment

The War is Over!

Posted on November 11, 2020 by The Solitary Historian
The Evening Missourian. [volume] (Columbia, Mo.), 11 Nov. 1918. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress.

One Hundred and Two years ago on November 11, 1918, at 5:00 am, the Germans finally gave in and agreed to an Armistice with the Allied forces bringing an end to World War I. Officially, it was the eleventh hour, of the eleventh day, of the eleventh month that the powers that be sat down to formally sign the agreement.

Courtesy of the House of Representatives

One year later, Woodrow Wilson would urge Americans to remember solemnly those lost in the war, officially observing for the first time the anniversary of the war’s end. On May 13, 1938, Congress would officially recognized November 11th to be an official holiday

To us in America the reflections of Armistice Day will be filled with solemn pride in the heroism of those who died in the country’s service, and with gratitude for the victory, both because of the thing from which it has freed us and because of the opportunity it has given America to show her sympathy with peace and justice in the councils of nations.

Woodrow Wilson, November 11, 1919 Address from the White House.

After the ending of World War II, at the urging of a veteran of the war Armistice Day was changed to Veteran’s Day in recognition of All American Veterans of all wars. On October 8, 1954 President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a veteran himself of World War II issues a proclamation in recognition of the first official Veteran’s Day.

I know first hand the sacrifice our men and women make for this country every day. From long hours at work, to deployments, and temporary duty assignments that take them away from their loved ones. They often miss recitals, birthdays, first steps, first words and so many of the important events in their children’s lives. Yet, they do it willingly, they volunteer to go to the most dangerous places on earth to keep the enemy from coming to our shores. They are willing to accept the cost of going into harm’s way knowing that they may never see their family again. These are exceptional men and women who have served in our Armed Forces. The families that stand behind them are exception. The wives who not only run the home while their spouse is away, but who keeps spirits high and problems at home to herself so that her husband does not inadvertently put himself in danger. The kids who just want their dad to tuck them in at night, or to play catch in the yard, or the mother who just wants her child to come home safely. They do so much for us, the least we can do is Thank them for their service.

So today and every day, I honor the brave men and women of our Armed Services and thank them for the sacrifice they are willing to make so that we can continue to live in the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave!

Posted in History | Leave a comment

Mourning the Dead: Funeral Practices in 1870 and 1900.

Posted on November 6, 2020 by The Solitary Historian

            Since the beginning of time, death has played a role in the lives of every person. Disease, the lack of proper nutrition, the lack of sanitary conditions, childbirth, and the lack of medical knowledge often played a role in the average life span.[1] In pre-Civil War America, mourning and funerals were deeply personal. The Civil War, however, brought new meaning to death in America. The war’s casualties brought about the need for creating new practices in the funeral industry, and by the end of the Civil War, those new practices had changed the way Americans mourned their loved ones. The 1900s saw funeral practices, and mourning customs started to shift even more to private affairs.

            To better understand the shift in customs and practices, it is essential to understand where they started. In pre-Civil War America, death, though familiar and a part of everyday life was deeply personal. Funerals took place in the home, with women and men from the community assisting the family in preparing the body for burial by washing and laying out the body. Someone would sit up with the body for three days to ensure that death had occurred, and the men would dig graves.[2]  In other words, only those who knew the family closely would actively participate in ensuring a proper funeral. However, the Civil War will actively change the practice.

Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress

            Mourning customs, however, did not change as much during the war era. According to the National Museum of Civil War Medicine, men were not exempt from mourning customs. They did, however, have it significantly easier than women. The appropriate mourning attire consisted of a dark or black suit with a black armband or hatband for men. Mourning expectations for widowers did not exceed three months.[3] Unlike their counterpart, widows remained in mourning for two and a half years. Dress for women in mourning encompassed three stages – Deep Mourning, Second Mourning, and Half Mourning. In a deep mourning period, women wore black dresses with no trim, and the only acceptable jewelry was jet—furthermore, women in deep mourning worn long veils initially made of crepe.[4] Due to health concerns, however, the crepe veils were discontinued. [5] Each subsequent mourning stage lessened the restrictions upon women based upon colors they could and could not wear.[6]  Additionally, mourning was dependent upon the individual that died.

Mourning should be worn, as we are told by a professed authority,

For a husband or wife, from one to two years, though some widows retain their mourning for life.

For a parent or grandparent, from six months to a year.

For children above ten years of age, from six months to a year; for those below that age, from three to six months; and for an infant, six or seven weeks.

For brothers and sisters, six to eight months.

For uncles and aunts, three to six months.

For cousins, or uncles or aunts related by marriage, from six weeks to three months.

For more distant relatives or friends, from three weeks to as many months, according to the degree of intimacy. [7]

Photo Courtesy of the Library of Congress

Additionally, there are rules about receiving visitors, sending and receiving mail, and invitations and announcements for the deceased.[8]

            The Civil War brought the advent of embalming. This process preserved the body to prevent decomposition from occurring immediately, enabling bodies to be shipped from the battlefield to home. In many cases, the embalming process occurred on the battlefield, and the body was delivered to their home’s front door. In April 1865 and the two-week viewing and travel schedule that finally took him home to Springfield, Illinois, the death of Abraham Lincoln created a powerful marketing tool for the idea of a non-decomposing body.[9] This new marketing tool paved the way for the undertaker to earn an income by selling his services.  

            The late 1800s through to the early 1900s saw professional undertakers’ creation, with schools for morticians as they now would be called forming around 1882.[10] Funerals moved out of the home and into newly created funeral parlors. Caskets became more of what we know today, and the process and responsibility for preparing the body for burial no longer fell to the women of the community. Though, in rural areas, this remained the exception.  One such funeral home is the Diuguid Funeral Home, located in Lynchburg, VA.

            According to their website, the Diuguid Funeral Home is the second oldest funeral home in America and the first one in Virginia. Started by Sampson Diuguid, a hand-carved furniture maker known for his craftsmanship, the Funeral Home started by happenstance rather than design. As his reputation grew for his furniture, Diuguid started receiving requests for coffins. On an exciting note, the Diuguid’s are responsible for designing and creating a church truck, which in the funeral industry allows for the casket to move up church aisles without the need for pallbearers to carry it.[11]

Page out of an 1870s ledger belonging to the Diuguid Funeral Home.

The cost of funerals in 1870 varied, as evidenced by this ledger. Notice that according to this particular page, that funerals cost anywhere from $30 to $75. Is this the typical range of pricing for funerals? Another page from the same year shows us that no, this is not the typical range of funeral prices. The ledger below shows that the price ranges from $10 to $130 for Col. R.R. Garland.[12]

Page out of an 1870s ledger belonging to the Diuguid Funeral Home.

“For Fashionable Mourning.” The Delineator, October 1900.

By 1900, funeral practices and mourning customs started to shift. Though most of the mourning clothing remained the same, there are slight differences in the styles. Fabrics also changed, and it was increasingly popular to purchase mourning clothing instead of making it at home.

Additionally, prices did not necessarily reflect change so much as it did the financial standing of the family paying for the funeral. Funeral homes tended to charge those who were well off more for their funerals than someone who could not afford it. In fact, in Lynchburg, there was an Overseer of the Poor who often paid for the services provided by the funeral at a significantly lower cost. The ledgers of the Diuguid Funeral Home in 1900 changed significantly from a hand-written ledger to a pre-printed ledger that recorded more information such as cause of death and much of the information that can now be found on death certificates. In fact, their records are so detailed that should a record not exist for an individual with the State records it is highly possible that Diuguid’s records contain what any researcher or genealogist may need to locate.

A page from a 1900s ledger belonging to Diuguid.

As it can be seen in 1900, according to this ledger page costs could go as high as $365 for a prominent member of society, but $4 for a two week old infant. Notice how the ledger side is completely different from the 1870s pages where the funeral home did not retain data.

No longer did families build homes with funerals in mind, no longer did the decease remain in the home until burial. Funeral Services had altered significantly the way that families mourned. The death of a loved one went from a very public showing to a more reserved private affair.

[1] According to the National Park Services, the average life span during 1870 was 50. See for more information: “The Custom of Mourning during the Victorian Era,” The Custom of Mourning during the Victorian Era (Washington, DC: National Park Services, 0AD), 1.

[2] Elizabeth Schmitt, “Home Funeral History,” National Home Funeral Alliance (The National Home Funeral Alliance, 2020), https://www.homefuneralalliance.org/home-funeral-history.html.

[3] For more information see: Louis Antoine Godey and Sarah Josepha Buell Hale, Godey’s Lady’s Book (Philadelphia, PA: Louis A. Godey, 1864), 186; Alice A. Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine (Toronto, Canada: The John C. Winston Co., Limited, 1909), 193; Kelly Christian, “Good Mourning America: Good Death and Loss in the 19th Century,” National Museum of Civil War Medicine (National Museum of Civil War Medicine, August 23, 2017), https://www.civilwarmed.org/good-death/.

[4] Alice A. Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine (Toronto, Canada: The John C. Winston Co., Limited, 1909), 193.

[5] Ibid., 194-195.

[6] Ibid., 195.

[7] Robert Tomes, The Bazar Book of Decorum: The Care of the Person, Manners, Etiquette, and Ceremonials (New York, NY: Harper, 1873), https://archive.org/stream/bazarbookofdecor00tomerich, 270.

[8] Note: In sending letters of condolence, announcements of death and sending letters of acknowledgment from received letters that the paper is edged in black. For more information see: Tomes, The Bazar Book of Decorum, 270; Johnson et al., The Household Companion: Comprising a Complete Cook Book; Practical Household Recipes, Aids and Hints for Household Decorations, the Care of Domestic Plants and Animals and a Treatise on Domestic Medicine 194; Florence Hartley et al., The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness: a Complete Hand Book for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society: Containing Full Directions for Correct Manners, Dress, Deportment, and Conversation, Rules for the Duties of Both Hostess and Guest in Morning Receptions, Dinner Companies, Visiting, Evening Parties and Balls, a Complete Guide for Letter Writing and Cards of Compliment, Hints on Managing Servants, on the Preservation of Health, and on Accomplishments: and Also Useful Receipts for the Complexion, Hair, and with Hints and Directions for the Care of the Wardrobe (Boston, MA: G. W. COTTRELL, 1860), 32-35.

[9] Schmitt, “Home Funeral History,”

[10] Sam Ward, “Frazer Consultants,” Frazer Consultants (blog) (Frazer Consultants, July 12, 2016), https://frazerconsultants.com/2016/07/a-history-of-funerals-in-the-united-states/.

[11] “History & Staff,” Diuguid Funeral Service (FUNERALTECH & TA, January 1, 2020), https://diuguidfuneralservice.com/about-us/history-staff/.

[12] Searches for R.R. Garland have not yet yielded exactly who was this gentleman.. The only R.R. Garland found is a Confederate Veteran from Texas.

Posted in History | Leave a comment

Henry Obediah Barber

Posted on October 7, 2020 by The Solitary Historian

            Utilizing genealogy as a means of understanding the past can often present some exciting challenges. However, with the ever-increasing digitalization of primary source materials such as marriage licenses, death certificates, town directories, and census reports, often open the window to valuable information.

Henry Obediah Barber

            Henry “Obediah” Barber is my fourth great grandfather through my maternal granny’s father’s line. I did not know about Obediah growing up; it was only in the more recent years that I discovered this connection to a larger than life frontiersman. Obediah was born on July 15, 1825, to the Reverend Isaac Barber and Catherine Frances Sikes in Bryan County, Georgia.[1]

On February 1, 1849, he married Nancy Stephens, and together they eventually had eleven children. One of those being my third great grandmother Julia Barber. He was a tall man with a height of around 6 ½ feet.  In 1857, 1875, and 1890 Obediah acted as a guide to the swamp for a surveying party.

            Sometime in 1854, Obediah purchased a 490-acre lot on the Okefenokee Swamp’s northeastern side and moved his family on to the land. Obediah served as a Justice of the Peace in Ware County and subsequently in Pierce County when the boundary was moved between 1857 and 1870. Unfortunately, I do not know much about his time as a Justice of the Peace due to records not being digitalized as of now. Maybe one day, they will be done so that I can access them for further research.  Based on census records for 1850-1860, it does not appear that Obediah had slaves; having a large family, he may have utilized his family as labor.[2]

The Civil War was a turning point in our nation’s history. Obediah served during the war as part of Mercer’s Partisans with Captain Thomas Spaulding Hopkins Mounted Partisan Rangers.[3]  On September 22, 1862, he enlisted at Camp Fort, where Captain Hopkins swore him in. Looking at his service records, it is evident that Captain Hopkins trusted him as between November and December 1862. He was sent to pursue a deserter. In an exciting twist, Obediah, himself, is recorded as having deserted on July 19, 1863.[4]

            In 1870, Obediah resigned as justice of the peace, sells his current home, and moves his family six miles across the swamp to a new farm. It is here that he built a log cabin for the family that survives to this day.  In 1874, his beloved Nancy died. Obediah remarried in 1875 to Matilda Tatum, with whom he fathered nine more children. If you are keeping track, that means Obediah had twenty children between two wives. By 1850, Obediah owned around 1500 acres of land and several working oxen and horses. In addition to crops such as rice, sugarcane, oats, and sweet potatoes, he farmed cattle, hogs, and chickens.[5]  There are interesting stories of Obediah killing a bear with a butcher knife, killing large snakes with his bare hands. Student biologists turned to him for information on the various animals and foliage found in the swamp. It is reported that authors and writers even utilized him for his knowledge, thus earning him the nickname “King of the Okefenokee.” [6]

            In 1898 his second wife, Matilda, died. At the age of 73, Obediah remarried a woman forty-seven years younger than him named Martha Ann Knight. The marriage did not last long, as Obediah suffered a stroke in 1903, and by 1907, Martha Ann divorced Obediah. He spent the last two years of his life under the guardianship of his children. Obediah died on December 28, 1909, having lived a full and fascinating life. Today, he is remembered as a pioneering legend in Ware County, Georgia.

            His 1870 cabin still stands and today is listed on the National Registry of Historic Places. The report states that it is significant as it is the only surviving home of its period remaining in the swamp. Furthermore, the land the home stands on is known as Obediah’s Okefenok.[7]

[1] National Register of Historic Places, Obediah Barber Homestead, Waycross, Ware County, Georgia, National Register #93500742.

[2] Ancestry.com. 1860 United States Federal Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009. Images reproduced by FamilySearch. Original data:1860 U.S. census, population schedule. NARA microfilm publication M653, 1,438 rolls. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.

[3] Fold3, Civil War Soldiers – Confederate – GA (/title/31/civil-war-soldiers-confederate-ga:accessed October 7, 2020), database and images, https://www.fold3.com/title/31/civil-war-soldiers-confederate-ga

[4] Ibid. 8.

[5] Ancestry.com U.S. IRS Tax Assessment Lists,1862-1918 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc., 2008.

[6]  Walker, Laura Singleton. History of Ware County, Georgia. Macon, Ga.: J.W. Burke Co., 1934: 334-335.

[7] National Register of Historic Places, Obediah Barber Homestead, 6.

Posted in History | Leave a comment

Christianity During the American Civil War

Posted on September 12, 2020 by The Solitary Historian

The role of religion in America during the Civil War was multifaceted. On the one hand, you had the division of churches into Old and New Schools. While on the other hand, churches, both North and South, maintained that God was on their sides. The following exploration is a comparison of two sermons, both proclaiming to be sermons preached on a day of thanksgiving and prayer, yet two completely different sermons.  

            The first sermon comes from Maximilian J. Michelbacher, a Jewish priest of prominence living in Confederate-held Richmond, VA.  Michelbacher immigrated from Bavaria in 1844 and arrived in Richmond in 1846. His congregation at Beth Ahabah was of the Ashkenazic form of worship. Michelbacher loved education and learning, and thus he and his congregational built the first Jewish school in Richmond. It was eventually closed so that the city could use its facilities for the formation of the Richmond Public School System. Michelbacher was their first rabbi and remained with them until he died in 1879.[1]

            His sermon entitled A Sermon Delivered on the Day of Prayer: Recommended by the President of the C.S. of A., the 27th of March, 1863, at the German Hebrew synagogue, “Bayth Ahabah,” is an exhortation to remain faithful. He praised the young men of the Jewish faith for their loyalty to their country, proclaiming that they did not have to be conscripted. The men knew their duty to their country, and therefore they honored that duty. His sermon urges the Confederacy to be vigilant and not fall into the trap of false words of the Union. His text comes from Nehemiah 4:14, in which he uses it to urge them to fight for their homes, their wives, their sons, and their daughters.  One of the passages in his sermon that stands out reads,

Sermon preached on March 24, 1863 in Richmond at the Bayth Ahabah

            Ah, my God, let us not put from us our confidence in Thee, nor forget the wonderful manifestations of Thy power in our behalf within the last twelve months! Thou only art our Savior and Redeemer, and Thou hast graciously assisted us in building the high wall of separation; and, even now, Thou dost call upon the people of the South in the words Thou gavest to Nehemiah: “Fight for your brethren, your sons, and your daughters, your wives and your houses!”[2]

Additionally, Michelbacher is urging, pleading with the merchant class people not to become speculators or extortionists, as some in the Confederacy have done. It is their responsibility to look after the needs of the widowed and the young. In closing, he calls the people to prayer. Prayer for the Confederacy to remain faithful to the will of God. Prayer that God will continue to bless their endeavors.

            In stark contrast to this comes a sermon from Phineas Densmore Gurley. Gurley was the Chaplain for the U.S. Senate in addition to being the pastor at New York Avenue Presbyterian Church.[3] Among Gurley’s congregation was Abraham Lincoln. Though Lincoln did not formally join the church, he did have a reserved pew.  Gurley is said to have remained by Mary Todd Lincoln’s side in the days after Lincoln’s death. Furthermore, Gurley preached both the White House funeral and the Springfield, Ill. service.[4]

            Gurley’s sermon entitled Man’s Projects and God’s Results: A Sermon: Preached by the Rev. P.D. Gurley … on Thursday, August 6, 1863, Being the Day of National Thanksgiving, Praise and Prayer, is by all accounts a completely different type of sermon. Gurley on the other hand, takes his text from Proverbs 16:9, “A man’s heart deviseth his way: but the LORD directeth his steps.” Utilizing such examples of the Tower of Babel, Joseph and his brothers, and the crucifixion of Christ on the cross, he reminds them that what they conceive to do, whether right or wrong, God, in turn, uses it for His purpose. His sermon is a message of hope, as reflected in the following passage:

Sermon preached on August 6, 1863 at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in D.C.

This is the great truth which we have deemed it appropriate to set before you to day; because it is in the view of this truth, and under its influence, that we are led to believe and to say with confidence: There is hope for our bleeding country. He who confounded the language and defeated the ambitious designs of the builders of Babel, can confound the counsels and defeat the designs of those who would divide and thereby ruin this nation. He, who provided sustenance and redemption for His people by the sale of Joseph into Egypt, can provide deliverance for us by methods equally mysterious and yet equally effective. He, who made the crucifixion of Jesus by wicked hands the most glorious event in the annals of the universe, can turn the dark night of our national adversity into a morning of gladness and a day of splendor such as neither this nor any other nation has ever seen before….. He, who is overruling slavery for the good of Africa, can overrule the infatuation both of the enemies and friends of slavery for the purification of the country by blood and its consequent rescue from ruin. We must not be faithless, but believing.[5]

As we can see from the examples presented in this blog, the role of religion in the Civil War allowed both sides to believe that they were the ones in the right. They believed that God was on their side and would ensure a victorious outcome. In the end, we know that the Union won the war and the United States preserved.  The Jewish Rabbi Michelbacher urged the people of the Confederacy to continue to fight for the protection of their homes and families. At the same time, President Lincoln’s minister reminded the people of the Union that what man planned, God would use for His purpose.

For further reading, please consider the following:

Gurley, Phineas Densmore. Man’s Projects and God’s Results: A Sermon: Preached by the Rev. P.D. Gurley … on Thursday, August 6, 1863, Being the Day of National Thanksgiving, Praise and Prayer. Washington, D.C.: W. Ballantyne, 1863. Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926 (accessed September 7, 2020). https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/apps/doc/CY0106389814/SABN?u=vic_liberty&sid=SABN&xid=1fb07b5f.

The Lincoln Institute. “Phineas D. Gurley.” Mr. Lincoln and Friends. The Lehrman Institute, February 2003. http://www.mrlincolnandfriends.org/the-preachers/phineas-gurley/.

Michelbacher, Maximilian J. A Sermon Delivered on the day of Prayer: Recommended by the President of the C.S. of A., the 27th of March, 1863, at the German Hebrew Synagogue, “Bayth Ahabah.” Macfarlane & Fergusson, 1863. Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926, https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/apps/doc/CY0100672023/SABN?u=vic_liberty&sid=SABN&xid=e0deb421. Accessed 7 Sept. 2020.

National Park Services. “Phineas Gurley (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, June 15, 2015. https://www.nps.gov/people/phineas-gurley.htm.

Wren, Linda Held, Claire Millhiser Rosenbaum, and Chuck Savage. “History.” Congregation Beth Ahaba. Congregation Beth Ahabah. Accessed September 12, 2020. https://www.bethahabah.org/heritage/history/.

[1]  Linda Held Wren, Claire Millhiser Rosenbaum, and Chuck Savage, “History,” Congregation Beth Ahabah (Congregation Beth Ahabah, unknown published date), accessed September 12, 2020, https://www.bethahabah.org/heritage/history/.

[2]  Maximilian J. Michelbacher, A Sermon Delivered on the Day of Prayer: Recommended by the President of the C.S. of A., the 27th of March, 1863, at the German Hebrew Synagogue, “Bayth Ahabah”. Macfarlane & Fergusson, 1863. Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926. 9.

[3]  National Park Services, “Phineas Gurley (U.S. National Park Service),” National Parks Service (U.S. Department of the Interior, June 15, 2015), https://www.nps.gov/people/phineas-gurley.htm.

[4] The Lincoln Institute, “Phineas D. Gurley,” Mr. Lincoln and Friends (The Lehrman Institute, February 2003), http://www.mrlincolnandfriends.org/the-preachers/phineas-gurley/.

[5] Phineas Densmore Gurley, Man’s Projects and God’s Results: A Sermon: Preached by the Rev. P.D. Gurley … on Thursday, August 6, 1863, Being the Day of National Thanksgiving, Praise and Prayer, Washington, D.C.: W. Ballantyne, 1863. Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926, 14-16.  

Posted in History | Leave a comment

The Long Road to a Ph.D. Begins…

Posted on January 10, 2020 by The Solitary Historian

This past August, I started my long road to my Ph.D. in History. The excitement that comes with starting a new degree also brings some anxiety over whether I have the ability to focus and excel at the level I expect of myself.  After completing my first semester, I have come to realize that I bring this anxiety onto myself. My first two actual Ph.D. courses resulted in solid A’s. HIST 820 – Teaching History Online was a really interesting course that dealt with the background of higher education with an emphasis on understanding the impact of higher education online. The final project saw students creating potential course documents for a class that they would like to teach both online and residentially one day. I, of course, stuck with my military history choosing to pursue it from the angle that had been first posed during my Thesis defense.

The second course HIST 711 Development of Western Freedoms, is more of a philosophy of ideas behind the theories that make up the American Freedom class. While philosophy is not my strong suit, surprisingly enough I managed a perfect grade in this course. The professors who taught the course (we had several who came in and gave lectures, but one main professor) are all well versed in their areas of expertise and made the class extremely enjoyable.

The other course I took this first semester was HIEU 597, now, this particular course is a Graduate level, however, since my MA focused on WWII I chose to take this course to bolster my MA. HIEU 597 focused on the Holocaust. I came away from this course with a deeper understanding of the various reasons behind the Holocaust, how seemingly ordinary men could turn into heartless killers, how neighbors could turn against neighbors and the fight against the evil that was Nazi Germany from the 1930s until 1945.  This was probably my hardest course, and in the end, resulted in an A- but I will gladly take it.

Spring semester starts on Monday and I will be focusing on Historiography and the Civil War. Two fun courses, one of which I am extremely looking forward to since it deals with my specialty.

Posted in History | Leave a comment